Sabtu, 23 November 2013
Diferensasi Sosiall
1. Pengertian Diferensiasi Sosial
Masyarakat dibentuk oleh sekumpulan individu yang masing-masing mempunyai potensi atau kemampuan yang berbeda-beda. Keanekaragaman individu yang saling berinteraksi ini disebut dengan ”perbedaan sosial”. Diferensiasi sosial adalah proses penempatan orang-orang dalam berbagai kategori sosial yang berbeda, yang didasarkan pada perbedaan-perbedaan yang diciptakan secara sosial. Menurut Soerjojo Soekanto, diferensiasi sosial adalah variasi pekerjaan, prestise, dan kekuasaan kelompok dalam masyarakat, yang dikaitkan dengan interaksi atau akibat umum dari proses interaksi sosial yang lain.
Diferensiasi sosial terjadi akibat pola interaksi individu yang memiliki ciri-ciri fisik dan non fisik berbeda-beda, meliputi:
a. Ciri fisik, seperti bentuk dan tinggi tubuh, raut muka, warna kulit, warna rambut dan lain-lain.
b. Ciri Sosial, seperti organisasi-organisasi tertentu yang membatasi keanggotaan hanya pada tingkat-tingkat tertentu pula dalam masyarakat.
c. Ciri budaya, seperti adanya anggapan bahwa budaya dan gelar kesarjanaan luar negeri lebih baik daripada yang dalam negeri. Dalam lingkup yang lebih luas meliputi bentuk organisasi, kebiasaan dan sistem nilai budaya lainnya.
Diferensiasi sosial merupakan karakteristik sosial yang membuat individu atau kelompok terpisah dan berbeda satu sama lain. Perbedaan ini disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor, yaitu:
a. Usia
b. Gender (jenis kelamin)
c. Latar belakang etnik
2. Faktor-faktor pembentuk ketidaksamaan Sosial
Kalau kita amati, dalam kehidupan sehari-hari kita mengetahui adanya pembedaan antara kaum pria dan wanita (jenis kelamin), jenis pekerjaan, suku bangsa, ras dan agama. Hal itu menunjukkan adanya keanekaragaman dalam masyarakat yang penggolongannya bukan atas dasar tinggi rendahnya penggolongan tersebut, tetapi lebih ditekankan pada klasifikasi masyarakat secara horisontal. Artinya tidak ada golongan yang lebih rendah atau lebih tinggi akibat dari penggolongan tersebut.
Diferensiasi sosial masyarakat ditandai dengan adanya perbedaan faktor-faktor sebagai berikut.
a. Perbedaan Ciri-ciri fisik
Diferensiasi ini terjadi karena perbedaan ciri-ciri fisik tertentu yang mendasari lahirnya pembagian ras, seperti bentuk kepala, bentuk badan, warna kulit, warna rambut dan warna mata. Menurut Andre Ketzsus, berbagai ciri fisik dapat dikemukakan sebagai berikut.
1) Bentuk kepala, dibedakan menjadi tiga, yaitu sebagai berikut.
a) Dolichepalis (kepala bertengkorak panjang)
b) Meshochepolis (kepala bertongkorak sedang)
c) Branehyshepalis (kepala bertengkorak pendek)
2) Bentuk badan, yang menjadi dasar pembeda adalah bahwa manusia dewasa mempunyai ketinggian rata-rata 150-178 cm sehingga seseorang yang memiliki ketinggian lebih dari 178 cm dan kurang dari 150 cm masuk dalam golongan tersendiri.
3) Bentuk hidung, meliputi.
a) Jepthorine (hidung sempit atau kecil)
b) Mesosorshine ( hidung sedang) dan
c) Platirhina (hidung lebar dan besar)
4) Bentuk rambut yang dibagi menjadi tiga, yaitu.
a) Leiotris (rambut lurus) dimiliki orang tionghoa, dan eskimo (Mongoloid
dan Kaokosoid).
b) Cyimotris (rambut halus dan pirang), dimiliki oleh etnis dari ras Nordic, Alpine dan Medetranian.
c) Ulotris (rambut gimbal) dimiliki sebagian ras Negroid di benua Afrika
dan Ras Malenesia
5) Warna kulit, menurut F. J Blumenbach, dikelompokkan menjadi lima, yaitu sebagai berikut.
a) Kulit putih, dimiliki ras Kaukososid
b) kulit hitam, dimiliki oleh ras dari Negroid, malenesian, dan Polynesian
c) Kulit sawo matang, dimiliki ras Malayan Mongoloid.
d) kulit Kuning, dimiliki ras Asiatic Mongoloid dan Eskimo.
e) kulit Merah, dimiliki ras orang-orang Indian dn penduduk asli benua Amerika.
6) Warna Mata, meliputi warna hitam, biru dan coklat serta abu-abu.
b. Perbedaan Ciri-ciri sosial
Perbedaan ini berkaitan dengan status dan peranan warga masyarakat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Selain itu, ditentukan pula oleh perbedaan mata pencaharian, prestise dan kekuasaan. Faktor-faktor tersebut berkaitan dengan penghasilan sehingga menimbulkan kesan adanya tingkatan tinggi rendah walaupun sebenarnya tidak menunjukkan adanya kelas-kelas sosial tetapi terwujud dengan adanya perbedaan, seperti perbedaan antara petani, pedagang, karyawan, pegawai negeri, polisi dan TNI.
c. Perbedaan Ciri-ciri Budaya
Perbedaan pada faktor ini, berhubungan adanya perbedaan pandangan hidupsuatu masyarakat yang menyangkut pelaksanaan nilai, norma, sistem religi, sistem kekerabatan. Bahasa yang dipakai, kesenian, etos kerja, tehnologi, sistem kemasyarakatan, juga pakain adat.
3. Bentuk-bentuk Diferensiasi Sosial
Berdasarkan bentuknya diferensiasi sosial dapat dibedakan sebagai berikut.
a. Diferensiasi berdasarkan ras
Ras adalah kategori individu yang secara turun temurun meiliki ciri-ciri fisik dan biologis tertentu yang sama. Ras adalah pengertian biologis dan bukan pengertian sosio kultural. Artinya, apabila kita menyebut suatu kelompok ras, maka yang kita kemukakan adalah ciri-ciri fisik, bukan sifat mental atau sifat kebudayaan. Ilmu yang mempelajari ras-ras manusia dinamakan Somatologi.
A.L. Kroeber membuat klasifikasi ras di dunia sebagai berikut.
1) Austroloid : penduduk asli Australia (Aborigin)
2) Mongoloid
o Asiatic Mongoloid (Asia Utara, Asia Tengah, Asia Timur)
o Malayan Mongoloid (Asia Tenggara, Indonesia, Malaysia, Filipina, penduduk asli Taiwan)
o American Mongoloid (Penduduk asli Amerika)
3) Caucasoid
o Nordic (Eropa Utara, sekitar laut Baltik)
o Alpine (Eropa Tengah dan Eropa Timur)
o Mediteranian (sekitar Laut Tengah, Afrika Utara, Armenia, Arab, Iran)
o Indic (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Srilanka)
4) Negroid
o African Negroid (Benua Afrika)
o Negrito (Afrika Tengah, Semenanjung Malaya, yang dikenal sebagai orang Semang, Filipina)
o Melanesian (Irian, Melanesia)
5) Ras-ras Khusus (tidak dapat diklasifikasikan ke dalam empat ras pokok)
o Bushman (Gurun Kalahari – Afrika Selatan)
o Veddoid (Pedalaman Srilanka dan Sulawesi Selatan)
o Polynesian (Kepulauan Mikronesia dan Polynesia)
o Ainu (di pulau Karafutu dan Hokaido – Jepang)
b. Diferensiasi Sosial berdasarkan agama
Suatu bentuk pengelompokkan masyarakat berdasarkan perbedaan agama yang dianut oleh seseorang. Berdasarkan agama yang dipeluk oleh seseorang atau kelompok, maka manusia dapat dibedakan atas golongan-golongan agama. Misalnya kelompok masyarakat penganut agama Islam dinamakan golongan Islam. Begitu pula dengan golongan Kristen, Katolik, Hindu, Budha, dan Konghucu.
c. Diferensiasi Sosial berdasarkan Klan
Suatu bentuk pengelompokkan masyarakat berdasarkan perbedaan diferensiasi sosial latar belakang kekerabatan seseorang yang terdiri atas satu nenek moyang yang dilihat melalui garis keturunan. Klen adalah suatu kelompok kekerabatan yang terdapat dalam masyarakat dengan menarik garis keturunan secara unilateral, yaitu melalui garis dari pihak ibu (matrilineal) saja, atau dari pihak bapak (patrilineal) saja.
Dalam keterkaitan dengan perkawinan, klen bersifat eksogami, artiya anggota-anggota dari satu klen tidak boleh kawin-mengawini di dalam klen itu sendiri. Jadi, harus mencari jodoh ke klen lain.
d. Diferensiasi sosial berdasarkan jenis kelamin
Suatu bentuk pengelompokkan masyarakat dilhat berdasarkan perbedaan jenis kelamin yang dimiliki seseorang. Jenis kelamin merupakan kategori sosial yang diperoleh manusia sejak lahir.
Para Sosiolog berkeyakinan bahwa secara biologis pria tidak lebih tinggi daripada wanita dalam merebut kesempatan yang berhubungan dengan ekonomi, hak istimewa, dan prestise.
e. Diferensiasi sosial berdasarkan profesi
Suatu bentuk pengelompokkan masyarakat berdasarkan diferensiasi jenis profesi atau pekerjaan yang ditekuni oleh seseorang. Profesi akan terbentuk kalau berbagai kelompok hanya mengerjakan satu tugas tertentu Di masyarakat dapat dijumpai berbagai macam profesi seperti petani, nelayan, peternak, tukang, dokter dan sebagainya.
f. Diferensiasi sosial berdasarkan suku bangsa
Suku bangsa adalah golongan sosial yang dibedakan dari golongan sosial yang lain karena mempunyai ciri-ciri yang paling mendasar dan umum berkaitan dengan asal usul, tempat asal, dan kebudayaan.
Ciri-ciri yang paling mendasar itu antara lain :
1) Tipe fisik yang sama
2) Bahasa daerah yang sama
3) Adat istiadat yang sama, termasuk hukum adatnya
4) Kesenian yang sama.
4. Faktor-faktor penyebab diferensiasi sosial masyarakat Indonesia.
a. Keadaan Geografis Wilayah Indonesia
Fakta-fakta yang mendukung pernyataan di atas adalah sebagai beikut:
1) Indonesia mempunyai 17.508 pulau besar dan kecil yang tersebar di seluruh wilayah teritorialnya; Masing-masing pulau dipisahkan oleh laut atau selat sepanjang ekuator dari 6 LU – 11 LS dan 95 BT – 141 BT. Keadaan tersebut menyebabkan nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia harus menetap di daerah yang terpisah-pisah satu sama lain sehingga tumbuh menjadi satu kesatuan yang masing-masing berbeda corak kehidupan dan kebudayaannya.
2) Letak indonesia di antara dua benua dan dua samudra
Faktor ini menyebabkan terciptanya kemajemukan agama. Seperti masuknya pengaruh agama Hindu dan Budha yang pertama kali masuk, disusul agama Islam di abad 13, agama katolik pada abad 16 yang dibawa oleh orang-orang Portugis dan kemudian agama Kristen protestan yang dibawa orang-orang Belanda.
3) Perbedaan iklim dan kesuburan tanah
Faktor ini menciptakan diferensiasi regional dalam bentuk perbedaan mata pencaharian penduduk, perbedaan tehnologi, perbedaan peralatan hidup dan sistem sosial.
Types of Guitar
Guitars can be divided into two broad categories, acoustic and electric:
Acoustic guitars
Main article: Acoustic guitar
Acoustic guitars are several notable subcategories within the acoustic guitar group: classical and flamenco guitars; steel-string guitars, which include the flat-topped, or "folk," guitar; twelve-string guitars; and the arched-top guitar. The acoustic guitar group also includes unamplified guitars designed to play in different registers, such as the acoustic bass guitar, which has a similar tuning to that of the electric bass guitar.
Renaissance and Baroque guitars
Main article: Baroque guitar
Renaissance and Baroque guitars are the gracile ancestors of the modern classical guitar. They are substantially smaller and more delicate than the classical guitar, and generate a much quieter sound. The strings are paired in courses as in a modern 12-string guitar, but they only have four or five courses of strings rather than six. They were more often used as rhythm instruments in ensembles than as solo instruments, and can often be seen in that role in early music performances. (Gaspar Sanz' Instrucción de Música sobre la Guitarra Española of 1674 contains his whole output for the solo guitar.)[11] Renaissance andBaroque guitars are easily distinguished because the Renaissance guitar is very plain and the Baroque guitar is very ornate, with ivory or wood inlays all over the neck and body, and a paper-cutout inverted "wedding cake" inside the hole.
Classical guitars
Main article: Classical guitar
Classical guitars also known as Spanish guitars are typically strung with nylon strings, plucked with the fingers, played in a seated position and are used to play a diversity of musical styles including classical music. The classical guitar's wide, flat neck allows the musician to play scales, arpeggios, and certain chord forms more easily and with less adjacent string interference than on other styles of guitar. Flamenco guitars are very similar in construction, but are associated with a more percussive tone.
In Mexico, the popular mariachi band includes a range of guitars, from the tiny requinto to theguitarrón, a guitar larger than a cello, which is tuned in the bass register. In Colombia, the traditional quartet includes a range of instruments too, from the small bandola (sometimes known as the Deleuze-Guattari, for use when traveling or in confined rooms or spaces), to the slightly larger tiple, to the full sized classical guitar. The requinto also appears in other Latin-American countries as a complementary member of the guitar family, with its smaller size and scale, permitting more projection for the playing of single-lined melodies. Modern dimensions of the classical instrument were established by the Spaniard Antonio de Torres Jurado (1817–1892).[12]
Extended-range classical guitars
Main article: Extended-range classical guitar
An extended-range classical guitar is a classical guitar with more than 6 strings, usually up to 13.
Flamenco guitars
Main article: Flamenco guitar
The flamenco guitar is similar to the classical guitar, but of lighter construction, with a cypress body and spruce top. Tuning pegs like those of a violin are traditional, although many modern flamenco guitars have machine heads. A distinguishing feature of all flamenco guitars is the tapping plates (golpeadores) glued to the table, to protect them against the taps with the fingernails that are an essential feature of the flamenco style.
Many modern soloists[who?] (following the lead of Paco de Lucía) play what is called a flamenca negra, a hybrid of the flamenco and classical guitar constructions.[citation needed]
Flat-top guitars
Main article: Steel-string acoustic guitar
Flat-top or steel-string guitars are similar to the classical guitar, however, within the varied sizes of the steel-stringed guitar the body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar, and has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design. The robust X-bracing typical of the steel-string was developed in the 1840s by German-American luthiers of whom C.F. Martin is the best known. Originally used on gut-strung instruments, the strength of the system allowed the guitar to withstand the additional tension of steel strings when this fortunate combination arose in the early 20th century. The steel strings produce a brighter tone, and according to many players, a louder sound. The acoustic guitar is used in many kinds of music including folk, country, bluegrass, pop, jazz, and blues. Many variations are possible from the roughly classical-sized OO and Parlour to the largeDreadnought and Jumbo. Ovation makes a modern variation, with a rounded back/side assembly molded from artificial materials.
Archtop guitars
Main article: Archtop guitar
Archtop guitars are steel-string instruments in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved from a solid billet in a curved rather than a flat shape. This violin-like construction is usually credited to the American Orville Gibson (1856–1918). Lloyd Loarof the Gibson Mandolin-Guitar Mfg. Co introduced the violin-inspired f-hole design now usually associated with archtop guitars, after designing a style of mandolin of the same type. The typical archtop guitar has a large, deep, hollow body whose form is much like that of a mandolin or violin family instrument. Nowadays, most archtops are equipped with magnetic pickups and are therefore both acoustic and electric. F-hole archtop guitars were immediately adopted upon their release by both jazz and country musicians and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually with flatwound strings.
Selmer-Maccaferri guitars
Main article: Selmer-Maccaferri guitar
Selmer-Maccaferri guitars are usually played by those who follow the style of Django Reinhardt. It is an unusual-looking instrument, distinguished by a fairly large body with squarish bouts, and either a "D"-shaped or longitudinal oval soundhole. The strings are gathered at the tail like an archtop guitar, but the top is formed from thin spruce (like a flat-top or classical) forced into a shallow dome. It also has a wide fingerboard and slotted head like a nylon-string guitar. The loud volume and penetrating tone make it suitable for single-note soloing and it is frequently employed as a lead instrument in gypsy swing.
Resonator, resophonic or Dobro guitars
Main articles: Resonator guitar and Dobro
All three principal types of resonator guitars were invented by the Slovak-American John Dopyera (1893–1988) for the National and Dobro (Dopyera Brothers) companies. Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, but with a body that may be made of brass, nickel-silver, or steel as well as wood, the sound of the resonator guitar is produced by one or more aluminum resonator cones mounted in the middle of the top. The physical principle of the guitar is therefore similar to the loudspeaker. The original purpose of the resonator was to produce a very loud sound; this purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator guitar is still played because of its distinctive tone. Resonator guitars may have either one or three resonator cones. The method of transmitting sound resonance to the cone is either a "biscuit" bridge, made of a small piece of hardwood at the vertex of the cone (Nationals), or a "spider" bridge, made of metal and mounted around the rim of the (inverted) cone (Dobros). Three-cone resonators always use a specialized metal bridge. The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section—called "square neck" or "Hawaiian"—is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass slide. The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues.
Twelve-string guitars
Main article: Twelve-string guitar
The twelve-string guitar usually has steel strings and is widely used in folk music, blues, and rock and roll. Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has six courses made up of two strings each, like a mandolin or lute. The highest two courses are tuned in unison, while the others are tuned in octaves. The 12-string guitar is also made in electric forms.
Russian guitars
Main article: Russian guitar
These seven-string acoustic guitars were the norm for Russian guitarists throughout the 19th and well into the 20th centuries. The Russian guitar is traditionally tuned to open G major.
Acoustic bass guitars
Main article: Acoustic bass guitar
Acoustic bass guitars, also known as an upright bass, have flatwound steel strings or gut strings and often the same tuning as an electric bass guitar.
Guitarrón
Main article: Guitarrón mexicano
The guitarrón is a very large, deep-bodied Mexican six-string acoustic bass played inmariachi bands. It is fretless with heavy gauge nylon strings, and is usually played by doubling notes at the octave, which is facilitated by the unusual tuning of A D G C E A.
Tenor guitars
Main article: Tenor guitar
A number of classical guitarists call the Niibori prime guitar a "Tenor Guitar" on the grounds that it sits in pitch between the alto and the bass. Elsewhere[citation needed] the name is taken for a four-string guitar with a scale length of 23" (585 mm)—about the same as a Terz Guitar. The tenor guitar is tuned in fifths, C G D A, as is the tenor banjo and the cello. It is generally accepted[citation needed] that the tenor guitar was created to allow a tenor banjo player to follow the fashion as it evolved from Dixieland Jazz towards the more progressive Jazz that featured guitar. It allows a tenor banjo player to provide a guitar-based rhythm section with little to learn. A small minority of players (such as Nick Reynolds of the Kingston Trio) close tuned the instrument to D G B E to produce a deep instrument that could be played with the four-note chord shapes found on the top four strings of the guitar or ukulele. The deep pitch warrants the wide-spaced chords that the banjo tuning permits, and the close tuned tenor does not have the same full, clear sound.[citation needed]
Harp guitars
Main article: Harp guitar
Harp guitars are difficult to classify as there are many variations within this type of guitar. They are typically rare and uncommon in the popular music scene. Most consist of a regular guitar, plus additional "harp" strings strung above the six normal strings. The instrument is usually acoustic and the harp strings are usually tuned to lower notes than the guitar strings, for an added bass range. Normally there is neither fingerboard nor frets behind the harp strings. Some harp guitars also feature much higher pitch strings strung below the traditional guitar strings. The number of harp strings varies greatly, depending on the type of guitar and also the player's personal preference. The Pikasso guitar; 4 necks, 2 sound holes, 42 strings and also the Oracle Harp Sympitar; 24 strings (with 12 sympathetic strings protruding through the neck) are modern examples.
Extended-range guitars
Main article: Extended-range classical guitar
For well over a century guitars featuring seven, eight, nine, ten or more strings have been used by a minority of guitarists as a means of increasing the range of pitch available to the player. Usually, it is bass strings that are added. Classical guitars with an extended range are useful for playing lute repertoire, some of which was written for lutes with more than six courses. A typical example is the modern 11-string archguitar, invented and played by Peter Blanchette.[13]
Guitar battente
Main article: Guitar battente
The battente, called "chitarra battente" in Italian, is generally smaller than a classical guitar and usually played with four or five single or double course metal strings of equal gauge. It is traditionally played in Southern Italy in the regions of Calabria, Campania,Basilicata and Puglia to accompany the voice as well as dancing (tarantella, or pizzica). Depending on the region it is from, the battente has either a flat back (fondo piato) or a rounded back (fondo bombato). The term "battente," which means "to beat" in Italian, has do with the style the guitar is generally played in, which is principally as a rhythm instrument. It is very likely that the battente is derived from the baroque guitar, of which is shares many characteristics.
Electric guitars
Main article: Electric guitar
Electric guitars can have solid, semi-hollow, or hollow bodies; solid bodies produce little sound without amplification. Electromagnetic pickups convert the vibration of the steel strings into signals, which are fed to an amplifier through a cable or radio transmitter. The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices or the natural distortion of valves (vacuum tubes) in the amplifier. There are two main types of magnetic pickups, single- and double-coil (or humbucker), each of which can bepassive or active. The electric guitar is used extensively in jazz, blues, R & B, and rock and roll. The first successful magnetic pickup for a guitar was invented by George Beauchamp, and incorporated into the 1931 Ro-Pat-In (later Rickenbacker) "Frying Pan" lap steel; other manufacturers, notablyGibson, soon began to install pickups in archtop models. After World War II the completely solid-body electric was popularized by Gibson in collaboration with Les Paul, and independently by Leo Fender of Fender Music. The lower fretboard action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard), lighter (thinner) strings, and its electrical amplification lend the electric guitar to techniques less frequently used on acoustic guitars. These include tapping, extensive use of legato through pull-offsand hammer-ons (also known as slurs), pinch harmonics, volume swells, and use of a tremolo armor effects pedals.
The first electric guitarist of note to use a seven-string guitar was jazz guitarist George Van Eps, who was a pioneer of this instrument.[citation needed] Solid body seven-strings were popularized in the 1980s and 1990s in part due to the release of the Ibanez Universe guitar,[citation needed] endorsed by Steve Vai. Other artists go a step further, by using an eight-string guitar with two extra low strings. Although the most common seven-string has a low B string, Roger McGuinn (of The Byrds and Rickenbacker) uses an octave G string paired with the regular G string as on a 12-string guitar, allowing him to incorporate chiming 12-string elements in standard six-string playing. In 1982 Uli Jon Roth developed the "Sky Guitar," with a vastly extended number of frets, which was the first guitar to venture into the upper registers of the violin. Roth's seven-string and 33-fret "Mighty Wing" guitar features a six-octave range.[citation needed]
The electric bass guitar is similar in tuning to the traditional double bass viol. Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common. There are also more exotic varieties, such as guitars with two, three,[14] or rarely four necks, all manner of alternate string arrangements, fretless fingerboards (used almost exclusively on bass guitars, meant to emulate the sound of a stand-up bass), 5.1 surround guitar, and such.
Some electric guitar and electric bass guitar models feature piezoelectric pickups, which function as transducers to provide a sound closer to that of an acoustic guitar with the flip of a switch or knob, rather than switching guitars. Those that combine piezoelectric pickups and magnetic pickups are sometimes known as hybrid guitars.
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